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Business analyst

Find out what a business analyst in government does and the skills you need to do the role at each level.

Last updated 28 August 2026 — See all updates

What a business analyst does

Business analysts help teams to:

  • analyse and understand a business problem or opportunity
  • undertake research and analysis to understand how a business or business area works, considering the people, organisation, processes, information, data and technology
  • identify areas for improvement, explore feasible options, analyse the effects of change and define success measures
  • identify and elaborate user and business needs to enable effective design, development and testing of services and business change
  • make decisions related to prioritisation and minimum viable product by using analysis led insights
  • ensure new products and services meet business and user needs, and are aligned with organisational goals
  • understand any business and policy constraints that need to be considered, and assess the implications

Business analyst role levels

There are 6 business analyst role levels, from trainee business analyst to head of business analysis.

The typical responsibilities and skills for each role level are described in the sections below. You can use this to identify the skills you need to progress in your career, or simply to learn more about each role in the Government Digital and Data profession.

1. Trainee business analyst

A trainee business analyst receives direction from more senior business analysts. At this level, you will work with others or under supervision to build and develop your skills.

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • EO (Executive Officer)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain the differences between delivery methodologies, such as scrum or kanban
  • explain how your approach would change based on the delivery methodology
  • explain why iteration is important
  • explain how roles in a multidisciplinary team work together to support delivery

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe how to create business scenarios to validate that business and user needs are met
  • explain the stages, types and purpose of testing, and the tools and techniques used

Business modelling

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain how models and diagrams can be used to represent the organisation, processes, relationships, information and interactions, and how they add value
  • support the creation of visual representations of business workflows, processes and structures
  • explain how other roles use the models you create to support their work

Business process improvement

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • contribute to the analysis and evaluation of business processes to identify problems and opportunities
  • contribute to the design and implementation of business process improvements
  • contribute to business process testing and usability evaluation

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain the change and benefits life cycles
  • describe common types of benefit, disbenefit, impact and risk to change
  • explain the value of impact assessments
  • describe some ways to capture assumptions, dependencies and measures.

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe the analysis techniques you could use to help understand the context, problem and options to meet business and user needs
  • explain the importance of understanding that internal and external factors influence the organisation
  • contribute to identifying and assessing multiple options and formulating recommendations, under supervision

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • support the elicitation, analysis, validation and prioritisation of business and user needs
  • support the definition of functional and non-functional requirements artefacts, such as problem statements, epics, features, user stories and acceptance criteria, to communicate business and user needs

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • support the analysis of functionality that systems deliver and need to deliver
  • support the creation of system and data models and documentation
  • work with others in a multidisciplinary team to support the identification of gaps in functionality and user experience

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe who your stakeholders are and the importance of managing relationships with them
  • explain what your stakeholders find important and why

2. Junior business analyst

A junior business analyst receives direction from more senior business analysts but is responsible for the output of specific tasks. At this level, you will have limited skills and will work with others or under supervision. You will support stakeholder relationship management.

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • EO (Executive Officer)
  • HEO (Higher Executive Officer)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain the differences between delivery methodologies, such as scrum or kanban
  • explain how your approach would change based on the delivery methodology
  • explain why iteration is important
  • explain how roles in a multidisciplinary team work together to support delivery

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe how to create business scenarios to validate that business and user needs are met
  • explain the stages, types and purpose of testing, and the tools and techniques used

Business modelling

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain how models and diagrams can be used to represent the organisation, processes, relationships, information and interactions, and how they add value
  • support the creation of visual representations of business workflows, processes and structures
  • explain how other roles use the models you create to support their work

Business process improvement

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • contribute to the analysis and evaluation of business processes to identify problems and opportunities
  • contribute to the design and implementation of business process improvements
  • contribute to business process testing and usability evaluation

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain the change and benefits life cycles
  • describe common types of benefit, disbenefit, impact and risk to change
  • explain the value of impact assessments
  • describe some ways to capture assumptions, dependencies and measures.

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe the analysis techniques you could use to help understand the context, problem and options to meet business and user needs
  • explain the importance of understanding that internal and external factors influence the organisation
  • contribute to identifying and assessing multiple options and formulating recommendations, under supervision

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • support the elicitation, analysis, validation and prioritisation of business and user needs
  • support the definition of functional and non-functional requirements artefacts, such as problem statements, epics, features, user stories and acceptance criteria, to communicate business and user needs

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • support the analysis of functionality that systems deliver and need to deliver
  • support the creation of system and data models and documentation
  • work with others in a multidisciplinary team to support the identification of gaps in functionality and user experience

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • describe who your stakeholders are and the importance of managing relationships with them
  • explain what your stakeholders find important and why

User experience insight analysis

Level: awareness

Awareness is the first of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain some ways to analyse user journeys, touchpoints, accessibility and common usability issues
  • describe user insight artefacts generated by other professions and how they add value
  • explain the importance of making data-informed decisions based on user experience findings

3. Business analyst

A business analyst leads small to medium size projects and supports larger and more complex projects.

At this role level, you will:

  • manage stakeholder relationships
  • work independently
  • have a good understanding of your work area
  • develop the business analysis community by sharing best practice and mentoring others

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • HEO (Higher Executive Officer)
  • SEO (Senior Executive Officer)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • explain how products and services are delivered through different methodologies
  • follow an appropriate approach to complete your work within the delivery methodology used by your team
  • adapt how you work and the work you produce based on your team's delivery methodology to ensure you deliver value
  • adapt how you work with other roles in a multidisciplinary team in line with the delivery methodology

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • work with others to ensure appropriate test coverage, data and scenarios, in line with acceptance criteria
  • document and triage defects, and their risks, so they can be traced and resolved
  • work with others to review test outcomes to validate that business and user needs are met

Business modelling

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • select appropriate business modelling techniques to support analysis, decision making and stakeholder understanding
  • elicit appropriate information to create effective business models
  • create models and diagrams that represent the organisation, processes, relationships, information and interactions
  • use existing and new models to ensure alignment to the organisation’s goals

Business process improvement

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • analyse and evaluate business processes to identify problems and opportunities
  • design, prioritise and facilitate the implementation of business process improvements, with some support
  • validate improvements to business processes through testing

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • assess how proposed changes affect roles, processes, policies, data, systems and customer or user experience
  • support the definition of measurable outcomes, measures and indicators
  • work with the business and other professions to support business readiness

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • plan and use the most appropriate analysis techniques to understand the context, the problem and root causes
  • communicate how your work supports and aligns to strategic contexts and goals
  • define problem statements and develop and evaluate multiple options
  • formulate recommendations, considering feasibility, benefits and impact

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • elicit, analyse, challenge and validate business and user needs, addressing conflicts
  • define artefacts, such as problem statements, epics, features, user stories, acceptance criteria and non-functional requirements, to communicate business and user needs 
  • manage artefacts and ensure traceability in line with a defined approach
  • facilitate the prioritisation of needs with minimal supervision

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • identify and analyse the functionality that systems deliver or need to deliver
  • create system and data models and documentation with minimal supervision
  • work with others in a multidisciplinary team to identify gaps in functionality and user experience, and their impact

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • identify important stakeholders and communicate with them clearly and regularly
  • tailor communication to stakeholders' needs and work with them to build relationships while meeting user needs
  • build and reach consensus with stakeholders
  • work to improve stakeholder relationships using evidence to explain decisions

User experience insight analysis

Level: working

Working is the second of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • contribute to the analysis of user journeys and interactions
  • use available quantitative and qualitative evidence to identify pain points for users
  • identify where additional evidence is needed to understand user experience
  • communicate how identified issues affect users and service outcomes

4. Senior business analyst

A senior business analyst has a good understanding of strategic arenas and leads large or complex projects.

At this role level, you will:

  • have functional or people management responsibilities, or a combination of both
  • mentor others
  • develop best practice
  • own stakeholder relationships
  • manage community of practice activities within a business area

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • SEO (Senior Executive Officer)
  • G7 (Grade 7)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • determine the approach for your role within the team's delivery methodology
  • define and agree the scope of delivery for your role within a multidisciplinary team
  • negotiate and agree delivery priorities with the team and relevant stakeholders
  • clearly communicate the value of iterative delivery and realising benefits early

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • advise others how to ensure appropriate test coverage, data and scenarios, in line with acceptance criteria
  • analyse business risk and impacts of defects so that appropriate action can be taken to enable business acceptance
  • provide assurance on the suitability, business readiness and viability of delivered solutions

Business modelling

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • guide the selection and use of business modelling techniques to ensure consistency
  • define and share good practices for eliciting appropriate information to create effective models
  • create models and diagrams that represent complex and large-scale situations, aligning with and informing architecture artefacts
  • use business modelling outcomes to support strategic decision making

Business process improvement

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead process analysis and evaluation to define business performance problems and opportunities
  • lead analysis and evaluation to design, test, implement and assess business process improvements
  • manage the design, execution and assessment of business process tests and usability evaluations

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead benefits and impact analysis for initiatives, including identifying trade-offs, quantitative and qualitative benefits, and business readiness indicators
  • ensure change impacts and benefits are translated into clear operating actions, ownership and measures
  • work across the business and with other professions to define and guide adoption and business readiness activities

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead the approach to understanding the context, the problem and root causes
  • set goals for a piece of work that aligns to the organisation's strategic context
  • lead the approach to developing and evaluating multiple options, sharing and advocating for recommendations to gain support

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead the elicitation, analysis and validation of complex or large-scale business and user needs, negotiating and addressing conflicts
  • define and assure artefacts, such as problem statements, epics, features, user stories, acceptance criteria and non-functional requirements, to communicate business and user needs 
  • lead and define the approach to manage artefacts and ensure traceability 
  • facilitate the prioritisation of needs, aligning to strategic goals

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead the analysis of functionality that systems deliver or need to deliver
  • create, and support others in the creation of, system and data models and documentation
  • assess the effect of system changes and share them with relevant stakeholders
  • determine when and how you and your team work with others to identify gaps in functionality and user experience, and their impact

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • work with the team to develop and maintain an understanding of stakeholders
  • work with the team to develop and implement stakeholder communications strategies
  • identify and resolve issues, influence stakeholders and manage relationships effectively
  • build long-term strategic relationships and communicate clearly and regularly with stakeholders

User experience insight analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • synthesise insights from multiple appropriate sources of evidence to provide a holistic understanding of user experience
  • identify patterns, root causes, and opportunities for improvement across journeys
  • ensure user experience insights are clearly linked to requirements, priorities, and design decisions
  • identify priorities for improving user experience, taking into consideration business and technical constraints

5. Lead business analyst

A lead business analyst has a good understanding of the enterprise arena and works in highly complex problem spaces, typically spanning multiple products or services.

At this role level, you will:

  • be a leader in the business analysis community (across government and externally)
  • have functional management or people management accountabilities, or a combination of both
  • actively share knowledge and be seen as a go-to person in the field
  • mentor others
  • own the main stakeholder relationships

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • G7 (Grade 7)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • determine the approach for your role within the team's delivery methodology
  • define and agree the scope of delivery for your role within a multidisciplinary team
  • negotiate and agree delivery priorities with the team and relevant stakeholders
  • clearly communicate the value of iterative delivery and realising benefits early

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • advise others how to ensure appropriate test coverage, data and scenarios, in line with acceptance criteria
  • analyse business risk and impacts of defects so that appropriate action can be taken to enable business acceptance
  • provide assurance on the suitability, business readiness and viability of delivered solutions

Business modelling

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set standards for business modelling, including for the elicitation of appropriate information
  • assess the effectiveness of modelling techniques to enable continuous improvement
  • coach others in business modelling, leading the creation of models when appropriate
  • use business modelling outcomes to anticipate and influence decision making and strategy development

Business process improvement

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead the identification of large-scale opportunities to deliver business performance improvements
  • set the direction for analysis, design and evaluation of business process improvements, including methods, tools and standards
  • set the direction for design, execution and assessment of business process tests and usability evaluations
  • coach others in designing, testing, implementing and assessing business process improvements

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • influence strategic decisions by challenging whether proposed change is likely to deliver real and evidenced value
  • work with the business and other professions to influence approaches for change adoption, business readiness and benefits management
  • position business analysis as a discipline that improves business readiness, adoption and outcomes

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • advise on approaches to options analysis, feasibility and impact assessments to ensure best practice is followed
  • ensure all streams of work align to the organisation's strategic context and goals
  • advise on how the organisation can use business analysis skills to add value
  • guide tactical decision making and influence strategic plans in a changing environment

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set standards for defining and managing complex or large-scale business and user needs
  • use business and user needs to ensure proposed solutions align with organisational strategy
  • provide guidance and recommendations to ensure needs are traceable and managed
  • influence the prioritisation of needs, enabling tactical solutions and long-term strategic decision making

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set the direction for the analysis of systems to align to business capabilities and strategy
  • set the direction for analysing and communicating system changes and the effect of change on stakeholders
  • work with other technical specialists to set and iterate standards for system and data modelling and documentation

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • direct the stakeholder relationship strategy for your teams
  • ensure stakeholder's objectives are set and support teams to meet them
  • influence and negotiate with senior stakeholders to resolve issues and enable progress

User experience insight analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • synthesise insights from multiple appropriate sources of evidence to provide a holistic understanding of user experience
  • identify patterns, root causes, and opportunities for improvement across journeys
  • ensure user experience insights are clearly linked to requirements, priorities, and design decisions
  • identify priorities for improving user experience, taking into consideration business and technical constraints

6. Head of business analysis

The head of business analysis leads the business analysis function across the enterprise area and builds business analysis capability for the organisation.

This role level is most often performed at the Civil Service job grade of:

  • G6 (Grade 6)
Skill Description

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set and iterate standards for working within different delivery methodologies
  • actively promote collaboration and agreement to ensure the team delivers value at the right time
  • experiment with new and innovative ways of working to enhance delivery outcomes
  • research new and evolving delivery methodologies and identify how your role would work within them

Business and user acceptance testing

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • advise others how to ensure appropriate test coverage, data and scenarios, in line with acceptance criteria
  • analyse business risk and impacts of defects so that appropriate action can be taken to enable business acceptance
  • provide assurance on the suitability, business readiness and viability of delivered solutions

Business modelling

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set standards for business modelling, including for the elicitation of appropriate information
  • assess the effectiveness of modelling techniques to enable continuous improvement
  • coach others in business modelling, leading the creation of models when appropriate
  • use business modelling outcomes to anticipate and influence decision making and strategy development

Business process improvement

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • lead the identification of large-scale opportunities to deliver business performance improvements
  • set the direction for analysis, design and evaluation of business process improvements, including methods, tools and standards
  • set the direction for design, execution and assessment of business process tests and usability evaluations
  • coach others in designing, testing, implementing and assessing business process improvements

Change, benefits and adoption analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • influence strategic decisions by challenging whether proposed change is likely to deliver real and evidenced value
  • work with the business and other professions to influence approaches for change adoption, business readiness and benefits management
  • position business analysis as a discipline that improves business readiness, adoption and outcomes

Context, problem and option analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • advise on approaches to options analysis, feasibility and impact assessments to ensure best practice is followed
  • ensure all streams of work align to the organisation's strategic context and goals
  • advise on how the organisation can use business analysis skills to add value
  • guide tactical decision making and influence strategic plans in a changing environment

Defining and managing business needs, user needs and requirements

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set standards for defining and managing complex or large-scale business and user needs
  • use business and user needs to ensure proposed solutions align with organisational strategy
  • provide guidance and recommendations to ensure needs are traceable and managed
  • influence the prioritisation of needs, enabling tactical solutions and long-term strategic decision making

Digital and data systems analysis

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • set the direction for the analysis of systems to align to business capabilities and strategy
  • set the direction for analysing and communicating system changes and the effect of change on stakeholders
  • work with other technical specialists to set and iterate standards for system and data modelling and documentation

Stakeholder relationship management

Level: expert

Expert is the fourth of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • direct the stakeholder relationship strategy for your teams
  • ensure stakeholder's objectives are set and support teams to meet them
  • influence and negotiate with senior stakeholders to resolve issues and enable progress

User experience insight analysis

Level: practitioner

Practitioner is the third of 4 ascending skill levels

You can:

  • synthesise insights from multiple appropriate sources of evidence to provide a holistic understanding of user experience
  • identify patterns, root causes, and opportunities for improvement across journeys
  • ensure user experience insights are clearly linked to requirements, priorities, and design decisions
  • identify priorities for improving user experience, taking into consideration business and technical constraints
Role Shared skills
Service owner

Adapting to delivery methodologies

Stakeholder relationship management

Business architect

Stakeholder relationship management

Content strategist

Stakeholder relationship management

Data and artificial intelligence ethicist

Stakeholder relationship management

Data governance manager

Stakeholder relationship management

Updates

Published 7 January 2020

Last updated 28 August 2026

28 August 2026

Some skills required by the business analyst role have been updated:

  • business modelling - updated to incorporate relevant parts of the removed skill ‘enterprise and business architecture (business analysis)'
  • business and user acceptance testing - renamed and updated to be more specific for a business analysis context, was previously 'testing (business analysis)'
  • user experience insight analysis - renamed and updated to be more specific for a business analysis context (was previously 'user experience analysis') A description for 'expert' level has been created and is required by 'head of business analysis'.

The role now requires the new skill 'change, benefits and adoption analysis'.

The skill 'enterprise and business architecture (business analyst)' has been removed from the role.

The most common Civil Service job grades for two levels have been updated:

  • trainee business analyst - from ‘AO and EO' to 'EO'
  • lead business analyst - from 'G7 and G6' to 'G7'

These changes reflect the latest data on the most common grades for jobs at these role levels across government.

28 November 2025

The skills ‘business modelling’, ‘digital and data systems analysis’, previously ‘systems analysis’, and ‘defining and managing user and business needs’, previously ‘requirements definition and management’ have been updated.

Trainee business analyst now requires the awareness level of 'business modelling'.

The skill ‘consultancy’ has been removed from the role.

29 August 2025

The business analyst role now includes the new skill ‘context, problem and option analysis’.

The skill ‘business analysis’ has been removed from the role.

30 May 2025

The business analyst role has been refreshed with updated skills. The role now includes the new skill ‘adapting to delivery methodologies’ and the updated skill ‘business process improvement’.

These skills have been removed from the role: 'agile working', ‘business process testing’ and 'methods and tools’.

28 February 2025

The skill 'stakeholder relationship management (business analyst)' has been removed from the role.

Business analyst now includes the skill 'stakeholder relationship management'.

The indicative grades for the role level 'lead business analyst' have been corrected to 'G7 and G6'. This is based on data on the most common grades for this role level across government. Previously the grade was displayed as G7.

30 November 2024

The skill 'consultancy (business analysis)' has been replaced with 'consultancy'. No change was made to the meaning of skill level descriptions.

30 August 2024

The skill level descriptions for 'business modelling', 'business process improvement' and 'business process testing' have been updated to improve clarity and ensure consistency across the framework. No change was made to the meaning of skill level descriptions.

31 May 2024

The indicative job grades for the 'trainee business analyst' role level have been updated from 'AA and AO' to 'AO and EO'. This change is based on the latest data on the most common grades for these role levels across government.

30 August 2022

The business analyst role has been fully updated, with new role levels and redefined skills. Role levels have been added for trainee business analyst, lead business analyst and head of business analysis. The principal business analyst role level has been removed.

7 January 2020

First published.